Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 (insulin dependent, juvenile onset)

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What is Diabetes Mellitus Type 1?

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Contact Andrew Walbank.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic syndrome defined by an inability to produce insulin, a hormone which lowers blood sugar. This leads to inappropriate hyperglycaemia (increased blood sugar levels) and deranged metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Insulin is normally produced in the pancreas, a glandular organ involved in the production of digestive enzymes and hormones such as insulin and glucagon. These functions are carried out in the exocrine and endocrine (Islets of Langerhans) pancreas respectively.

Who gets Diabetes Mellitus Type 1?

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Watch a video on Young Diabetes: Why My Child?

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Type 1 diabetes mellitus is predominantly a disease of the young, usually developing before 20 years of age. Overall, type I DM makes up approximately 15% of all cases of diabetes. It develops in approximately 1 in 600 children and is one of the most common chronic diseases in children. The incidence is relatively low for children under the age of 5, increases between 5 and 15, and then tapers off.

The incidence of diabetes (including type 1) appears to be rapidly rising in many parts of the world, including Australia. In addition, it may be occurring at an even younger age. Males and females tend to be equally affected.

In Australia there is estimated to be approximately one million diabetic patients, of which approximately 150,000 fit into the type 1 category. Australia has a very high rate of type 1 diabetes compared to the rest of the world. The incidence of diabetes in Australian Aboriginal people is even higher.

Predisposing Factors

Type I diabetes mellitus is a disease of disordered immune function involving destruction of the cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin (beta cells). The exact cause of the disease is unknown. It has been proposed that it arises from a genetically-linked autoimmune disease process. It is known that there is a strong family link.

The disease is thought to develop in five stages:

Genetic predisposition
Environmental trigger
Active autoimmunity
Progressive beta cell destruction
Diabetes mellitus

For example, the environmental trigger may be a virus or chemical toxin that upsets the normal function of the immune system. This may lead to the body's immune system attacking itself. The normal beta cells in the pancreas may be attacked and destroyed. When approximately 90% of the beta cells are destroyed, symptoms of diabetes mellitus begin to appear. The exact cause and sequence is not fully understood but investigation and research into the disease continues.

Genetic Predisposition

There is no single gene that "causes" type 1 diabetes. Instead, there are a large number of inherited factors that may increase an individual's likelihood of developing diabetes. This is known as multifactorial inheritance. The genes implicated in the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus control the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system. This system is involved in the complex process of identifying cells which are a normal part of the body, and distinguishing them from foreign cells, such as those of bacteria or viruses. In an autoimmune disease such as diabetes mellitus, this system makes a mistake in identifying the normal 'self' cells as 'foreign', and attacks the body.

Environmental Triggers

No single environmental trigger has been identified as causing diabetes mellitus, however both infectious agents and dietary factors are thought to be important. Various viruses have been implicated in the development of type I DM. They may act by initiating or modifying the autoimmune process. In particular, the rubella virus and coxsackie viruses have been closely studied. In particular, congenital rubella infection has shown direct relationships with the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus. This is presumably due to the virus (or antibodies against it) damaging the beta cells of the pancreas. Some research has looked at dietary factors that may be associated with type 1 diabetes. In particular, cow's milk proteins (such as bovine serum albumin) which may have some similarities to pancreatic islet cell markers may be able to trigger the autoimmune process. Other chemicals including nitrosamines have been identified as causes of diabetes mellitus in animal models, but not in humans.

Progression

The development of type 1 diabetes mellitus can be said to pass through several 'stages'. These include the pre-clinical stage, clinical presentation with symptoms, a period of relative remission (called the honeymoon period, characterised by improvement symptoms and even reduction in insulin dosage), and the chronic phase.

Pre-Clinical Phase

Pre-clinical diabetes refers to the time during which destruction of pancreatic insulin-producing cells is occurring, but symptoms have not yet developed. This period may last for months to years. Normally, 80-90% of the pancreatic beta cells must be destroyed before any symptoms of diabetes develops. During this time, blood tests can identify some immunological markers of pancreatic cell destruction. However, there is currently no known treatment to prevent progression of pre-clinical diabetes to true diabetes mellitus.

Clinical Presentation

The classic presenting symptoms of type 1 diabetes mellitus are discussed below. For some children, the first symptoms of diabetes mellitus are those of diabetic ketoacidosis. This is a serious and life-threatening condition, requiring immediate treatment. Ketoacidosis occurs due to a severe disturbance in the body's metabolism. Without insulin, glucose cannot be taken up into cells. Instead fats are broken down for energy which can have acid by-products.

Honeymoon Stage

After a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus has been made, and treatment with insulin therapy has begun, a so-called 'honeymoon stage' may develop. This stage is characterised by a reduction in insulin requirements which may last from weeks to months. Some patients may require no insulin at all. This stage is always transient (short-lasting) and is due to production of insulin by the remaining surviving pancreatic beta cells. Eventually, these cells will be destroyed by the on-going auto-immune process, and the patient will be dependent on exogenous (artificial) insulin.

Chronic Phase Diabetes Mellitus Type 1

Patients with type 1 diabetes require life-long treatment with exogenous (artificial) insulin to regulate their blood sugar levels. This insulin may be given through the use of a hypodermic needle (seen right), or other methods such as the use of an insulin pump. Over time, many patients suffer chronic complications: vascular, neurological and organ-specific (such as kidney and eye disease). The frequency and severity of these complications is related to duration that the patient has suffered the disease for, and by how well their blood sugar levels have been controlled. If blood sugar levels, blood pressure and lipids are tightly controlled, many complications of diabetes may be prevented. Some patients may develop the major emergency complication of diabetes, known as ketoacidosis (extremely high blood glucose levels accompanied with extremely low insulin levels), which has a mortality rate of 5-10%.

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